By Dr. Salah H. Esmail, Cairo, Egypt
Litter is a very important product in poultry growing, because birds are exposed to the litter and its contents (microbes, moisture, ammonia, dust, odour, and texture) from the first day of life. Badly managed litter may facilitate the spread of certain infectious diseases, and also creates problems which lead to serious economic losses. The “litter problems” have not yet been classified or identified specifically, since they are connected with other management problems as well.There are several types of litter commonly used in poultry houses such as pine shavings, hardwood shavings, pine or hardwood chips, rice hulls, peanut hulls, sand, crushed corn cobs, chopped straw, hay, or corn stover, and processed paper. These materials are usually used at rates ranging from 2-5 kg per square meter, and the choice of such materials should be made based on the relative advantages and disadvantages of each under particular farm conditions (Table 1).
Housing and management
Houses with concrete floors may be easier to clean, but those with earth floors are more difficult to handle and disinfection following removal of old wet litter may be an ineffective procedure, leaving infectious materials and debris. This will become a source of infection when new broods of chicks are placed in the house.
Houses with concrete floors may be easier to clean, but those with earth floors are more difficult to handle and disinfection following removal of old wet litter may be an ineffective procedure, leaving infectious materials and debris. This will become a source of infection when new broods of chicks are placed in the house.
Some houses seem to have a continuous problem with wet litter. Poorly constructed houses, especially where roofs are not properly insulated, can lead to condensation which drips on the litter. Such a problem may also arise from worn nipples that have been used for five years or more. The timely replacement of worn nipples should, therefore, provide an opportunity for improving litter quality. Reductions in cake volumes of 50-90% are reported following replacement of worn nipples. Other management opportunities include pressure adjustment, proper line height, and routine flushing and line sanitation. When excessive caking develops under drinkers, it may be necessary to stir the litter or top it with fresh, dry bedding.
Temperature and humidity
Fans, not optimally numbered or located, or running at incorrect rates may allow poor gas exchange at certain points in the house. This helps water vapour to be absorbed into the litter or not to escape from it. Consequently, mould and bacterial growth is enhanced, particularly when the in-house temperature is high.
Fans, not optimally numbered or located, or running at incorrect rates may allow poor gas exchange at certain points in the house. This helps water vapour to be absorbed into the litter or not to escape from it. Consequently, mould and bacterial growth is enhanced, particularly when the in-house temperature is high.
Poor ventilation, along with the high temperature and humidity, may also lead to ammonia build-up in the house. This may reach noxious levels which are unpleasant for attendants and the stock. In severe cases, ammonia build-up will contribute to various disease problems such as coccidiosis, breast blisters, ammonia burns, and respiratory infections.
Feed factors and litter
1 Feed ingredients
Certain batches of feed may include excess of ingredients such as wheat bran, sesame cake, or corn grains, all of which are a laxative contributing to production of wet or badly smelling droppings. These ingredients should, therefore, be balanced with others to alleviate such physiological effects on poultry.
Certain batches of feed may include excess of ingredients such as wheat bran, sesame cake, or corn grains, all of which are a laxative contributing to production of wet or badly smelling droppings. These ingredients should, therefore, be balanced with others to alleviate such physiological effects on poultry.
Poor quality of fats in poultry rations which cannot be utilised and are fully excreted often lead to greasy litter. This litter may become rancid with time and hence contribute further to the bad smelling in the house.
It is a recommended practice, particularly with layers, to spread a mixture of grains on the litter at 3 grams per bird per day during the first four weeks of age, gradually being increased to 10 grams at lay. This helps prevent accumulation of birds in cold winter at particular locations in the house, which results in wetter spots. Such a practice also helps encourage birds to turn over wet litter and hence provide it with better ventilation.
2 Feed energy level
When dietary energy increases, litter moisture decreases and the quality improves (Table 2). This helps alleviate incidence of footpad dermatitis, paw lesions and other health problems.
When dietary energy increases, litter moisture decreases and the quality improves (Table 2). This helps alleviate incidence of footpad dermatitis, paw lesions and other health problems.
3 Mineral level
Excessive dietary mineral intake has been shown to increase excreta moisture and water intake (Table 3). It may, therefore, be advantageous to explore lower levels at some growing stages if litter moisture and quality are problematic.
Excessive dietary mineral intake has been shown to increase excreta moisture and water intake (Table 3). It may, therefore, be advantageous to explore lower levels at some growing stages if litter moisture and quality are problematic.
4 Drug additives
Rations containing drugs such as coccidiostats are associated with metabolic changes that also lead to wetter droppings. A change of feed ingredients will frequently overcome this problem. Such a dietary change should be made in a way which suits changes of activities of micro flora present in the bird’s intestine during the course of medication.
Rations containing drugs such as coccidiostats are associated with metabolic changes that also lead to wetter droppings. A change of feed ingredients will frequently overcome this problem. Such a dietary change should be made in a way which suits changes of activities of micro flora present in the bird’s intestine during the course of medication.
5 Physical form and feeding system
Given in Table 4 are results of a study on the effects of physical form and feeding system on litter moisture and quality. Feeding birds with pellets resulted in higher litter moisture and poorer litter quality than fines or mash groups. It is possible that the feed intake on pellets was higher, resulting in higher water intake. Feed restriction also results in higher moisture level and poorer litter quality. It could be that water intake was stimulated in this case because birds felt unsatisfied during feed restriction.
Given in Table 4 are results of a study on the effects of physical form and feeding system on litter moisture and quality. Feeding birds with pellets resulted in higher litter moisture and poorer litter quality than fines or mash groups. It is possible that the feed intake on pellets was higher, resulting in higher water intake. Feed restriction also results in higher moisture level and poorer litter quality. It could be that water intake was stimulated in this case because birds felt unsatisfied during feed restriction.
Source: World Poultry, Vol. 27, No. 8, 2011
